Introduction: From Moral Progress to Moral Reorganisation
A familiar global narrative presents the recent history of elephant tourism as a moral evolution from bad exploitation to good conservation: from logging, riding and close human control to rescue, non-contact tourism and rewilding. In Laos, however, this story obscures more than it explains. It turns a contested reorganisation of human–elephant life into a self-evident passage from an unethical past to an ethical future.
The central transformation examined in this chapter is therefore not a simple advance in morality, but a change in the object of care. Elephant Adventures sought to sustain a relationship among elephants, mahouts and regional communities whose material foundations were being weakened by the decline of logging and changes in rural life. The later Elephant Conservation Center (ECC) increasingly directed care towards the creation of more autonomous elephant social groups and, ultimately, the recovery of elephant wildness at a greater distance from humans. Both projects spoke in the language of conservation, but they did not seek to conserve the same thing: one cared for a historically formed multispecies relationship; the other increasingly cared for an autonomous elephant sociality oriented towards the wild. This reorientation is what the chapter calls elephant-centrism: not concern for elephants as such, but the elevation of the elephant as a separable moral and biological subject above the relations through which its life has been constituted.
This shift was reinforced by changes in the global elephant-tourism market. Western animal-protection campaigns, international tour operators and platforms such as TripAdvisor translated complex welfare questions into portable moral distinctions: riding or no riding, contact or no contact, exploitation or rescue. These pressures did not by themselves produce the transformation from Elephant Adventures to the ECC, but they gave growing commercial and moral authority to models that presented distance from humans as evidence of ethical progress.
To analyse the different responses that emerged from this shared institutional lineage, the chapter distinguishes three paths within and around the ElefantAsia network. Gilles Maurer’s social-ecological research treats elephants, mahouts, forests, labour and economic change as parts of one relational system. Ingrid Suter’s welfare-centred approach assumes that human–elephant relations will continue and seeks to improve and standardise them through veterinary care, welfare assessment and professional reform. Sébastien Duffillot and the ECC increasingly organise intensive human care and mahout knowledge towards reherding, rewilding and greater elephant autonomy. These are not mutually exclusive schools, but different answers to the question of what conservation should sustain, reform or eventually leave behind.
This chapter asks whether separation from humans should be accepted as the only legitimate endpoint of elephant ethics. It does not argue that rewilding is intrinsically misguided, or that every inherited form of human–elephant work should continue. Its normative claim is narrower: a reduction in human relations should not be treated as self-evident moral progress. The relevant questions are which relations enable or damage the life of a particular elephant, who remains responsible for that life, and what social and ecological capacities are sustained or displaced when conservation reorganises care.
The chapter reconstructs the making of elephant-centrism by following the development of Elephant Adventures, the wider activities of ElefantAsia and the emergence of the ECC, before examining the welfare campaigns and biocultural criticism that reshaped the meaning of those projects. In doing so, it extends Lainé’s critique of elephantocentrism beyond conservation anthropology, tracing how the abstraction of the elephant is produced through changing landscapes and ownership, welfare metrics, audit systems and platform rules. The analysis begins with a caravan that set out from Hongsa in 2007, when travelling with elephants and mahouts through villages and forests could still be presented not as the opposite of conservation, but as one possible form of it.
From Hongsa to the Mekong: Elephant Adventures in 2007
In 2007, a small-scale elephant caravan called Elephant Adventures began operating in Hongsa, northwestern Laos.
Travellers arrived from Luang Prabang or Pak Beng by boat, following the Mekong to Tha Souang before continuing overland to Hongsa. The following morning, near Sibounheuang village, each guest met an elephant and its mahout and set out on a journey of several days through villages, rice fields, river valleys and forests.
The caravan passed through Ban Then, crossed the Nam Tap River and continued to Ban Nam Tap. On arrival, the elephants were taken to the river and then released into the forest for the night. The next morning, guests could accompany the mahouts to retrieve the elephants, groom them and take them to bathe. On a steep uphill section, everyone travelled on foot. Farther along the route, the group visited a small, non-industrial logging site, where mahouts demonstrated how elephants could move timber. The journey then followed the Nam En River to a small Khmu village before reaching Ban Kheng En and the Mekong.[1]
This was not a short ride around a fixed elephant camp. It combined travel by boat, vehicle, foot and elephant, crossing a lived landscape over several days.
A map published with the Green Discovery itinerary shows the Hongsa basin, villages, rivers, mountain ridges, existing roads, forest trails and the Mekong as parts of a single journey. Roads were already present and were used for supplies and emergency access. Yet substantial portions of the route depended upon forest paths and on mahouts who knew where elephants could walk, drink, forage and rest.[2]
Figure 3.1. The Elephant Adventures caravan route, c. 2007–2008
Travellers entered Hongsa overland from Tha Souang. From the Hongsa area, the caravan crossed Ban Then, Ban Nam Tap, the Nam En watershed and Ban Kheng En before reaching the Mekong. Rather than operating within a fixed elephant facility, the journey connected elephants, mahouts, villages, forests and rivers across a regional landscape.
Looking at this itinerary today, many people would focus immediately on the fact that tourists rode elephants. This chapter asks a different set of questions.
Why was such a journey conceived as a conservation activity?
Why did it disappear?
And why did the same ElefantAsia network later produce the Elephant Conservation Center, an institution that increasingly placed reherding and rewilding at the centre of its mission?
Following this transformation reveals that the making of elephant-centrism in Laos was not a simple story of moral progress from exploitation to protection.
1. Beyond the Thai model of occupational transition
Accounts of elephant tourism in Southeast Asia are often organised around the experience of Thailand.
In January 1989, the Thai government imposed a national ban on logging in natural forests. Large numbers of elephants and mahouts subsequently entered an already expanding tourism sector. Elephant camps became widespread, offering activities that ranged from performances and riding to bathing, feeding and observation.[3]
The Lao trajectory was different.
In the early 2000s, international tourism in Laos—especially in Luang Prabang—was itself still taking shape. Elephant tourism did not merely transfer logging elephants into a mature mass-tourism industry. Elephants, mahouts, forests and village cultures became part of the process through which Laos was presented as a destination to the international travel market.
Some of the earliest camps around Luang Prabang were established not in spaces created solely for animal display, but within river-and-forest landscapes that retained local memories of elephants. Tiger Trail’s Elephant & Adventure Camp at Ban Xieng Lom (later Elephant Village) and Manifa Elephant Camp, like Elephant Adventures, drew upon landscapes in which keeping elephants near water and forest was locally intelligible.[4]
These projects were not identical. Yet all emerged in relation to a shared set of problems: declining opportunities in forestry, the livelihoods of elephant owners, mahout employment, veterinary access, low reproduction and the uncertain economic future of domesticated elephants.
Here and throughout this chapter, domesticated elephant follows a term widely used in the Lao elephant sector for elephants living under individual or institutional human management. It does not imply that the Asian elephant has undergone domestication at the species level. Where appropriate, village elephant and captive elephant identify more specific social and institutional situations.
ElefantAsia’s own retrospective account states that its founders developed an ecotourism elephant-riding itinerary in 2007 and proposed it to Green Discovery, which marketed it under the name Elephant Adventures. The stated objectives included replacing more exhausting logging work, sustaining mahout traditions, supporting local development and financing elephant conservation.[5]
Understanding elephant tourism in Laos therefore requires more than an account of occupational transition from logging to tourism.
It requires an account of how landscapes once shared by people and elephants were reorganised through tourism, industrial development and conservation science.
2. Hongsa and Muang Thong: two elephant regions, two futures
Northwestern Laos had at least two important centres of domesticated-elephant culture: Hongsa and the area known locally as Muang Thong, officially Thongmixay District, adjoining the Nam Phouy National Biodiversity Conservation Area.
Hongsa: the loss of a mobile landscape
Hongsa once supported a substantial population of domesticated elephants, elephant owners and highly experienced mahouts. The elephants did not remain permanently at logging sites. They moved between villages, agricultural land, forests, rivers and places of work. When not working, many spent extended periods foraging in the forest.
Elephant Adventures did not introduce an entirely new elephant culture to Hongsa. It reorganised existing practices of mobility, forest use, mahout knowledge and village hospitality as a small-scale form of international tourism.
Yet the project emerged as Hongsa was approaching profound transformation. Hongsa Power Company was formed in 2009 to develop a 1,878-megawatt lignite mine-mouth power station. The project incorporated the mine and power plant together with roads, water infrastructure, transmission facilities and resettlement areas.[6]
The power project was not necessarily the sole cause of the decline in elephant keeping. Broader changes in forestry, employment, agriculture, transportation and land use also mattered. Local accounts nevertheless describe elephants leaving Hongsa for tourism businesses elsewhere in Laos and for foreign destinations, while some mahouts entered different occupations.[7]
When elephants leave, more than a numerical population is lost. A caravan such as Elephant Adventures required:
- compatible elephant–mahout teams;
- a chief mahout able to select and coordinate them;
- knowledge of water, forage and resting places;
- relations with villages along the route;
- the ability to release elephants safely into forest overnight; and
- the collective experience needed to respond when terrain, weather or an individual elephant required a change of plan.
Roads also changed the meaning of the journey.
The Elephant Adventures map shows that roads were never entirely absent. Vehicles carried visitors from Tha Souang to Hongsa, delivered supplies to Ban Nam Tap for larger groups and provided an emergency evacuation route. Initially, roads supported the caravan as secondary infrastructure.
As roads expanded, however, they also enabled agricultural conversion, settlement, commercial transport and more intensive access to previously remote areas. A trail could remain physically open while becoming unsuitable for elephants because of crops, fences, traffic, land claims or the disappearance of forest where the animals could forage and rest.
For Elephant Adventures, remoteness was not simply an obstacle. It was part of the journey’s substance. The fact that a route could not be travelled quickly by vehicle—and that mahouts knew how to cross it with elephants—was precisely what gave the journey its form.
Roads brought Hongsa closer to the outside world. At the same time, they helped erase the Hongsa that Elephant Adventures had turned into a journey.
Muang Thong: what access to forest made possible
Muang Thong followed a different path and continues to retain a significant population of domesticated elephants.
This cannot be explained merely by suggesting that its residents valued tradition more strongly. The decisive material condition was its proximity to the extensive forests of Nam Phouy.
Research by Gilles Maurer and his colleagues describes Thongmixay as an area where village elephants could still be released seasonally into forest, forage with a degree of autonomy and encounter wild elephants. The authors interpret the older system not as complete confinement but as a form of elephant keeping characterised by common access to forest resources, intermittent human supervision and seasonal freedom. They also document how agricultural intensification, divided land access and tighter protected-area boundaries have placed this system under increasing pressure.[8]
Around Nam Phouy, domesticated females have encountered and mated with wild bulls. Maurer and his co-authors consequently argue that the wild and domesticated populations cannot be understood as wholly separate demographic systems. The reproduction of village elephants has depended partly on access to wild males, while the survival of domesticated elephants has also been shaped by the economic decisions of their human owners.[9]
Human beings, domesticated elephants, wild elephants, forest, labour, ownership and reproduction therefore formed a single social-ecological system.
The contrast between Hongsa and Muang Thong is significant:
In Hongsa, the landscape that sustained elephant culture was industrialised and reorganised. In Muang Thong, the forests of Nam Phouy preserved much of the physical space in which relations among people, village elephants and wild elephants could continue.
This does not mean that the protected-area system was created to preserve domesticated elephants. Nor does it mean that formal conservation rules have always supported village access.
If the protected area had been completely closed to local people and village elephants, the social-ecological system described by Maurer could not have persisted. What mattered was both the survival of a large forest block and the continued porosity of its boundaries.
Muang Thong maintained elephants not by separating them completely from people, but because access to forest still made a continuing human–elephant relationship materially possible.
3. ElefantAsia: respect for culture and the impulse to enlighten
Two tendencies coexisted in the early work of ElefantAsia.
The first was relational and biocultural. It sought to protect elephants together with mahouts and the social worlds in which they lived.
Elephant Adventures described elephants as part of Laos’s cultural heritage. Travellers were invited to learn about mahout life, travel between villages and forests and contribute to the continuation of both elephant and mahout culture. In its 2007 French-language publicity, Hongsa was described as a sanctuaire des derniers éléphants domestiques du pays—a sanctuary of the country’s last domesticated elephants.[10]
At that time, sanctuary did not necessarily mean a facility in which elephants were removed from human relations. It referred to a region in which elephants, mahouts and their shared culture still survived.
The second tendency was modernising and managerial. It sought to improve local practices through Western veterinary medicine, international development programmes, formal training, standardised records and institutional management.
Elephant Adventures contributed five per cent of its turnover to ElefantAsia’s mobile veterinary programme. In cooperation with the Lao National Animal Health Centre, ElefantAsia trained veterinary personnel, operated a mobile clinic, distributed first-aid materials and created a national registration database. Between December 2007 and July 2009, the Mobile Veterinary Unit recorded treatment of 347 domesticated elephants, most of them working in logging.[11]
These interventions had substantial practical value. Laos had very limited specialist veterinary capacity, medicines were difficult to obtain in remote districts, and injuries and chronic conditions associated with forestry were often untreated.
Yet the programme also institutionalised a hierarchy of knowledge.
Nicolas Lainé observed that Western veterinary medicine was used mainly for elephants working in tourism facilities, while mahouts in neighbouring villages were often reluctant to consult veterinarians even when ElefantAsia provided treatment free of charge. Some village mahouts instead emphasised forest access, rest and elephants’ own selection of medicinal or restorative plants.[12]
This reluctance should not be understood simply as ignorance.
Western veterinary medicine tends to identify symptoms, diagnose a condition, administer treatment and document the progress of an individual body. Village elephant care may also consider workload, season, forest release, plant selection, individual temperament, human–elephant history and ritual or spiritual relations.
Free medical treatment removes a financial obstacle. It does not resolve questions of authority:
Who defines illness?
Who knows the elephant best?
Which forms of knowledge become institutionally legitimate?
The Mobile Veterinary Unit’s own published report reflects this tension. It valued mahouts’ daily role and employed a multilingual liaison officer, but it also described some mahouts as lacking understanding of preventive medicine and framed external education as the remedy. Information from Thai elephant-care manuals and international veterinary literature was translated and transferred into Laos.[13]
ElefantAsia therefore spoke of respecting mahout culture while simultaneously treating that culture as something that needed to be trained, corrected and modernised.
This was not simply cultural rejection. It was a form of developmentalism that included local culture while retaining external authority over what counted as improvement.
A corresponding form of saviourism was already possible within this model. The narrative was not yet “rescuing elephants from Lao people.” It was closer to rescuing both elephants and mahout culture from decline through foreign expertise, conservation funding, veterinary science and international tourism.
The coexistence of relational commitment and managerial intervention within ElefantAsia is important for the argument that follows. It helps explain how the same institutional network could later generate social-ecological research into human–elephant interdependence, welfare programmes designed to reform and standardise that relationship, and the ECC’s attempt to reorganise it towards greater elephant autonomy. The three paths outlined in the introduction were later developments of tensions already present in ElefantAsia’s early practice.
4. Elephant Adventures: a mobile conservation economy
Elephant Adventures was not an elephant-riding business to which conservation language was later attached.
Green Discovery’s operational documentation describes a carefully structured, high-cost and low-volume product.
Groups were limited to six guests. In principle, each traveller was assigned one elephant and one mahout. A chief mahout, local guide and cooks also accompanied the caravan. For groups of one or two guests, an additional elephant carried camping and kitchen equipment. For groups of three or more, supplies were delivered by vehicle to Ban Nam Tap rather than continually increasing the load carried by the elephants.[14]
Participating elephants and mahouts were selected by the chief mahout. The documentation emphasised reliable commands, experienced elephant–mahout teams, safety instruction and knowledge of the forest. Green Discovery described the project as converting logging elephants into “quality and humane ecotourism activities.” It also stated that host villages were paid according to arrangements defined with villagers.[15]
The programme was explicitly marketed as upmarket. In 2007, the five-day tour cost US$990 per person for two participants, US$700 for three or four participants and US$600 for five or six. The intended customers were travellers prepared to accept basic accommodation and difficult terrain in return for an extended journey with elephants and mahouts.[16]
The project attempted to create a mobile conservation economy.
- Tourism revenue would employ mahouts.
- Villages would earn income.
- Logging elephants would move into work that was presented as less exhausting.
- Veterinary treatment and reproduction programmes would receive funding.
- Travellers would learn from mahouts.
Later Elephant Adventures material stated that mahouts were paid more than they had earned in logging. When the elephants and mahouts needed two additional days to return to Hongsa without tourists, they received the same daily payment. Village funds also received contributions for each guest-night, while five per cent of total turnover went to the Mobile Elephant Clinic.[17]
The object being conserved was therefore not the elephant’s body in isolation. It was a mobile relationship connecting elephants, mahouts, families, villages, forests, rivers and visitors.
This should not be romanticised as the untouched survival of traditional culture.
Guests received a “Basic Mahout Course Certificate.” They were tested on commands in a village courtyard. Logging skills were demonstrated for visitors. At the end of the journey, the elephants were reportedly brought to the riverbank to kneel as the guests departed.
These were forms of tourism staging. Regional practices were selected, arranged and made legible to an international audience.
Elephant Adventures consequently had a dual character:
It was a biocultural journey grounded in living mahout knowledge and regional landscapes, but it was also a commercial product that packaged those relations for the international tourism market.
Commercialisation does not necessarily make a relationship false. Nor does the presence of local culture make a tourism activity automatically responsible.
The relevant questions concern who designed the product, whose knowledge carried authority, how revenue was distributed and what kinds of lives the elephants were able to lead.
The distinction drawn here is therefore not between an authentic, non-commercial tradition and a corrupted commercial modernity. Elephant Adventures, the ECC and welfare-certified tourism are all market-mediated arrangements. The analytical issue is what each arrangement uses revenue, land and institutional authority to reproduce: continuing capacities for a shared human–elephant life, a reformed and auditable working relationship, or an elephant sociality increasingly organised apart from humans. Commercial staging becomes consequential when it redistributes authority or changes the object that institutions undertake to sustain.
5. Was Elephant Adventures intended as a permanent model?
It remains uncertain whether Elephant Adventures was conceived as a permanent means of sustaining Hongsa’s elephant culture.
Several possibilities remain open.
- It may have been intended as a long-term community-based tourism model.
- It may have been conceived as temporary employment for elephants and mahouts affected by declining forestry and the approaching transformation of Hongsa.
- It may also have functioned as a transitional project while ElefantAsia prepared a more permanent, concentrated facility at Nam Tien.
The available evidence establishes that both models were being considered during the same period. A 2010 article written by ElefantAsia staff described elephant trekking in Laos as still being in its infancy while stating that an ElefantAsia-sponsored “sanctuary” was about to open. The article was based on veterinary data collected between 2007 and 2009, during the period when Elephant Adventures was being actively promoted.[18]
This demonstrates concurrent planning. It does not prove that Elephant Adventures was deliberately designed from the outset as a short-lived bridge to the ECC.
The project received substantial investment. It had a dedicated website, international media coverage, books, films, promotional materials and distribution through Green Discovery. Elephant Adventures was still advertising future caravan departures on its website in 2011. Some Green Discovery pages remained archived through February 2014, although the persistence of an online page does not establish that tours were still being operated at that date.[19]
Nevertheless, the model was structurally fragile.
It required several compatible elephant–mahout teams, a capable chief mahout, enduring relations with villages, knowledge of a long route, camping and food logistics, access to forest and an international sales network able to sell an expensive specialist journey.
When elephants and mahouts left the region, the problem was not merely that there were fewer animals available. The collective capacity to organise the caravan was progressively lost.
When forests became farms, roads or industrial areas, routes might remain geographically traceable while becoming socially unsuitable for elephants. The journey depended on access to water, forage, rest areas and forest where elephants could stay overnight without damaging crops or creating conflict.
The disappearance of Elephant Adventures probably resulted from at least two overlapping processes.
First, changes in elephants, mahout employment and landscape access around Hongsa made the tour increasingly difficult to operate.
Second, growing criticism of elephant riding in Western travel markets made it increasingly difficult to sell, defend and reinvest in.
At present, the chronology of the second process requires further research. Booking records, Green Discovery correspondence, tour-operator policies and interviews with former staff would be needed to establish when anti-riding pressure became commercially decisive.
Changing international ethics did not necessarily create the original material crisis. They may, however, have made it far harder to reconstruct a model that was already losing its regional foundations.
The operational base weakened first; the changing moral market then reduced the possibility of rebuilding it.
The evidence is uneven, and that unevenness limits the comparison that follows. Elephant Adventures can be reconstructed from unusually detailed itineraries, logistics documents and promotional archives, but not from complete booking records or a sustained ethnography of its operation. The ECC is more visible through its present institutional publications, scientific partnerships and visitor discourse, but its internal labour relations, financial structure and everyday negotiations with mahouts are not documented here to the same depth. The chapter therefore compares changing public and institutional objects of conservation; it does not claim to provide a symmetrical ethnography of daily life at both projects or a comparative assessment of the welfare of their elephants.
6. From dispersed relations to concentrated conservation
The Elephant Conservation Center did not suddenly appear as an external sanctuary opposed to elephant tourism.
It emerged from the same network of veterinary care, reproduction programmes, mahout training and ecotourism development associated with ElefantAsia.
According to the ECC’s official history, the organisation was registered in Sayaboury Province in 2010. It was established at Nam Tien with an elephant hospital and a land concession intended to support breeding and socialisation. The ECC then began purchasing elephants from owners who had decided to sell. Its official account explicitly connects the centre’s creation to declining logging opportunities and the effort to redirect mahouts towards ecotourism.[20]
The ECC and Elephant Adventures therefore represented two different spatial arrangements of conservation.
The difference was political-ecological as well as spatial. It concerned who owned elephants, who controlled access to land, who employed mahouts, which institutions attracted international finance and whose knowledge could authoritatively define conservation.
Elephant Adventures: a dispersed model
This model connected elephants still owned in villages, mahouts, local hosts, shared forests, rivers and existing travel routes.
The ECC: a concentrated model
This model brought elephants into a dedicated territory governed by an organisation with veterinary facilities, paid staff, breeding plans, land rights, scientific partners and access to international funding.
The first model depended on the continued viability of a regional social landscape. The second could continue even when elephant keeping in the surrounding region was declining, provided that the institution retained land, revenue and administrative capacity.
This was a practical adaptation. Where families could no longer maintain elephants, moving the animals to a dedicated centre could appear to be the most realistic way to provide land, food, medical care and long-term management.
Yet the solution also changed the elephants’ social position.
An elephant that had been family property, a participant in village life and a mobile presence in a regional landscape could become an individual protected and managed by a specialised institution.
The mahout could shift from owner, relative or locally embedded practitioner to employee within an organisational hierarchy.
The forest was increasingly redefined from a lived and shared space used by villagers and elephants into a conservation territory governed through institutional agreements.
The ECC was designed to protect elephants from the collapse of regional elephant-keeping systems. It was also made possible by transferring elephants out of those systems.
This is not a contradiction that can be resolved simply by deciding whether the ECC is good or bad. It is the central dilemma of its institutional formation.
7. How the object of conservation changed
A comparison between Elephant Adventures and the later ECC reveals a transformation not only in the language of conservation, but in its moral and practical object.
The earlier vocabulary emphasised:
- elephants and mahouts;
- the “Way of the Mahout”;
- cultural heritage;
- village hospitality;
- forest journeys;
- humane ecotourism;
- local development;
- veterinary care; and
- economic alternatives to logging.
The crisis was defined as declining forestry employment, inadequate veterinary care, low reproduction and the disappearance of mahout culture.
The proposed solution was to relocate human–elephant relations within a different economy.
In its contemporary public presentation, the ECC increasingly emphasises:
- rescue;
- rehabilitation;
- natural behaviour;
- socialisation;
- reherding;
- rewilding;
- release; and
- recovery of wild populations.
The centre describes the creation of socially compatible elephant groups as preparation for eventual release into Nam Pouy. Mahouts continue to contribute their knowledge to this process, while released elephants remain subject to observation, GPS tracking and ranger patrols.[21]
This was not merely a change in terminology.
In the earlier model, sustaining a continuing human–elephant relationship was itself a conservation objective.
In the later model, that relationship increasingly became a means of preparing elephants for greater social autonomy and reduced human dependence.
The change should not be depicted as completely linear. The ECC continues to employ mahouts, acknowledges their expertise and depends on direct human intervention in veterinary treatment, breeding, socialisation and rewilding.
Indeed, the ECC’s own description of rewilding makes the continuing relationship visible. Former mahouts track released elephants; mahout knowledge is described as essential; government agencies, rangers, biologists, donors and technology all remain involved.[22]
The ECC’s defining tension is therefore not that it has eliminated human–elephant relations.
It is that:
Operationally, the ECC remains deeply relational, while institutionally its preferred future is directed towards increasing separation and wildness.
Rewilding is not the absence of human–elephant work. It is a new and highly organised form of that work.
This structure is not unique to the ECC. Conservation translocations generally require intensive human selection, veterinary preparation, acclimatisation, monitoring and post-release management in order to establish animals that can live with less routine human support. In the case of Asian elephants, the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group’s 2024 guidelines explicitly treat mahouts, veterinarians, biologists, rangers, government agencies and local communities as necessary participants in rehabilitation and release. They also require planners to assess the effects of removing elephants from owners and mahouts who may have strong bonds with them, and to consider risks and benefits from the perspectives of elephants, people and landscapes.[23]
The mere fact that rewilding uses human care to reduce later human dependence is therefore not, by itself, a contradiction. Minimal contact may be a defensible technical objective for displaced wild calves or other elephants selected for release. The question specific to the Lao case is more demanding: when elephants have been formed through long relations with mahouts, households and working landscapes, on what grounds should those relations be treated only as conditions to be overcome? Rewilding should be evaluated as one possible conservation strategy for particular elephants and recipient landscapes, not elevated into the universal moral completion of elephant care.
8. From welfare campaigns to an activity-based moral market
From the 2000s onward, the international language used to evaluate elephant tourism also changed.
Rosaleen Duffy and Lorraine Moore argued that animal-welfare organisations had become influential actors in the global governance of elephant tourism. They also warned that universal standards could reproduce North–South power inequalities when they failed to engage seriously with local practices and economic conditions.[24]
The campaigns addressed management conditions with genuine welfare relevance, including prolonged restraint, hard substrates, limited social opportunities, nutritionally unbalanced diets and inadequate veterinary care. The analytical question is not whether such conditions matter, but how evidence about variable conditions at particular venues became translated into categorical judgements about tourist activities everywhere.
World Animal Protection’s 2017 report Taken for a Ride was especially influential. Based on visits to 220 venues in six Asian countries, including Laos, it documented the conditions of 2,923 elephants and reported that three quarters were living under poor or unacceptable conditions. All elephants in the lowest-scoring group were kept at venues offering riding, while the highest-scoring venues offered no riding or performances and generally restricted direct tourist contact.[25]
The report’s evidentiary contribution and its methodological limits must be distinguished. Its rapid welfare-conditions assessment recorded such factors as restraint, shelter, hygiene, diet, social interaction, daily routines, management and tourist activities. It was designed to identify broad institutional conditions across a very large number of venues. The report explicitly acknowledged, however, that it did not directly measure the welfare state of individual elephants. It assessed the conditions presumed to affect welfare and converted them into a single score for each venue.[25]
This distinction became less visible as the findings moved from assessment into campaigning. A correlation between riding venues and poor conditions was increasingly translated into the stronger claim that riding, training or direct tourist contact was itself reliable evidence that an elephant had been subjected to cruelty. WAP’s campaign materials presented “wildlife entertainment” as a category to be phased out and promoted observation-only sanctuaries and viewing elephants in the wild as the principal ethical alternatives. Its normative premise—“wild animals belong in the wild, not in entertainment”—preceded and exceeded the narrower empirical question of how particular management practices affected the welfare of particular elephants.[25]
International discussion consequently came to rely increasingly on visible moral oppositions:
- riding versus no riding;
- touching versus no touching;
- bathing versus no bathing;
- captivity versus freedom;
- camp versus sanctuary.
Within this framework, the most visible tourist activity can become more important than the elephant’s overall life.
A photograph of riding may be treated as sufficient evidence of an institution’s ethics before anyone investigates the duration and conditions of the activity, the elephant’s health, forest access, exercise, diet, social environment, veterinary records or relationship with its mahout.
What subsequent welfare research showed
Research conducted subsequently by Chiang Mai University, the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute and their collaborators did not support the use of a simple activity label as a proxy for welfare. A major review concluded that claims of universal brutality in elephant tourism were often based on anecdote rather than solid science, that management varied substantially among camps and that not all tourist activities were necessarily detrimental. Welfare, the authors argued, should be evaluated through objective physical, physiological and psychological evidence.[26]
Studies of individual elephants produced results that complicated the riding/no-riding distinction. At five camps with different management systems, elephants at an observation-only venue had some of the highest body-condition, insulin and glucose measures and poorer metabolic profiles than elephants receiving exercise through riding programmes. Across camps, greater walking distance and work time were associated with healthier metabolic measures, while tourist numbers and the provision of bananas, sugar cane and other supplementary foods were associated with higher body condition and less favourable metabolic indicators. The authors did not argue that riding was inherently beneficial. They concluded that hands-off facilities must still ensure adequate exercise and appropriate diets.[27]
A separate study of 122 elephants at fifteen camps found that saddle-related wounds were rare. By contrast, excessive body condition, hard substrates and the improper use of control equipment emerged as identifiable concerns. Approximately one quarter of elephants whose mahouts carried an ankus showed wounds in areas where the tool could be applied. The relevant welfare issue was therefore not the mere visibility of a saddle or ankus but the conditions and manner in which equipment was used.[28]
Another year-long comparison of elephants in saddle-riding, bareback-riding and no-riding programmes found no clear indication that riding per se negatively affected the two physiological markers examined. Overall faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were lowest in the saddle-riding group, although results varied among camps, biomarkers and sample types. The researchers cautioned that chaining, inappropriate ankus use and limited social opportunities could still adversely affect welfare and that no single physiological measure provided a complete assessment.[29]
These studies address a narrower but consequential point: the presence or absence of riding, contact or observation cannot, by itself, reveal the welfare of an individual elephant. They redirect attention from the declared category of an activity to measurable outcomes in the animal’s whole life.
A 2024 comparison of elephant-welfare assessment systems makes the methodological difference explicit. It identifies the strengths of WAP’s approach—its focus on tourist camps and its capacity to survey institutions on a large scale—but also notes that assumptions and subjective criteria may influence scoring, that the method focuses on the institutional rather than individual level and that it lacks several validated measures and more recent developments in animal-welfare science. The authors recommend combining resource-based conditions with animal-based outcomes and evaluating nutrition, environment, health, behaviour and mental state together.[30]
Taken together, this literature establishes a methodological point:
An activity label is not a welfare assessment.
From assessment to platform rule
The activity-based vocabulary was particularly compatible with the needs of international tourism distribution. Tour operators and online platforms could not continuously examine the diet, exercise, restraint, health, social environment and human relationships of every elephant sold through their systems. They could, however, prohibit visible categories of activity.
In 2016, after a World Animal Protection campaign supported by more than 550,000 people, TripAdvisor and Viator announced that they would cease selling tickets to many attractions involving direct contact with captive wild animals, explicitly including elephant riding. WAP reported that more than 160 travel companies had made comparable commitments by early 2017.[31] Ethical judgement was thereby translated into a scalable commercial rule: an activity could be excluded without a whole-life assessment of the animals involved.
Social media and review platforms extended the same logic to reputational judgement. A photograph of riding could circulate independently of information about duration, load, terrain, exercise, diet, forest access, rest or veterinary care. Individual consumers could impose reputational costs on a venue through a category that was immediately recognisable and morally charged.
Elephant Adventures would have been particularly vulnerable in this emerging prohibition-based market. Its small groups, forest movement, mahout expertise, village payments and veterinary contributions could all be documented. Yet the entire model could still be rejected through the single classification “multi-day elephant riding.”
The complex question—
Under what conditions did these particular elephants travel, carry weight, forage, rest and respond to their mahouts?
—was displaced by the simpler question:
Did tourists ride them?
The transformation of the 2010s cannot be understood simply as an improvement in awareness of elephant welfare. It was also a reorganisation of ethical attention. Concern became increasingly elephant-centred within international tourism discourse, while elephants were progressively abstracted from their relationships with mahouts, local communities and historically formed systems of work and care. Complex and context-dependent questions of welfare were translated into a simplified moral vocabulary—riding or not riding, contact or non-contact, exploitation or rescue, captivity or freedom—that could be readily communicated to tourists and institutionalised by tour operators and booking platforms.
This elephant-centrism produced two forms of abstraction. First, mahouts, communities and historically shared landscapes disappeared from the ethical frame. Second, the particular elephant—with its own health, temperament, life history and human relationships—was absorbed into a standardised image of what an elephant ought to become. This logic is visible in a recurring narrative in visitor reviews of the ECC: elephants are rescued, rehabilitated and socialised so that they can once again “live as elephants.”[32] The formulation is revealing. It assumes that an authentic elephant life is recovered as sustained relations with humans recede and elephant-to-elephant sociality becomes primary. Mahout knowledge remains necessary, but chiefly as a means of guiding elephants towards that preferred future. The global tourism market can therefore claim to put elephants first while paying less attention to the particular relationships through which each elephant’s life has actually been formed.
9. Welfare reform and the politics of auditability: Suter and ACES
A different response to prohibition-based ethics emerged from Ingrid Suter and the welfare framework associated with the Asian Captive Elephant Standards.
Suter had worked with ElefantAsia and later became a co-founder of ACES. Her position does not call for the abolition of elephant tourism. It argues that large numbers of elephants will remain under human management and that their lives should be improved through veterinary care, evidence-based husbandry, mahout skills and enforceable standards.
In a 2020 commentary, Suter argued that the elephant-tourism industry was capable of positive change and that mahout skills could contribute to conservation without the difficult and limited process of rewilding. She also criticised animal-rights messaging that overlooked the socio-economic and geopolitical complexity of elephant conservation in developing countries.[33]
ACES attempts to evaluate more than the presence or absence of riding. Its audit framework includes body condition, diet, water, social contact, working hours, shelter, substrate, foot care, veterinary records and staff conditions. It also examines employment contracts, wages, insurance, leave, training and legal documentation. Certification requires institutional transparency, corrective action and repeated assessment.[34]
This is considerably more comprehensive than a single activity prohibition.
Yet the system also reveals another problem: the organisational cost of becoming auditable.
The following example requires a brief positional note: the author works with Manifa Elephant Camp and draws here on direct involvement in its management and international communication. Around 2022–2023, Manifa was offered an opportunity to participate in a supported ACES assessment or certification process. The camp did not reject the welfare objectives. It lacked the staff capacity to prepare the extensive English-language policies, records and evidence during the difficult period of reopening after COVID-19.[35]
An audit fee can be subsidised while the organisational cost of auditability remains substantial.
Certification assesses the lives of elephants, but it also assesses whether an organisation can translate its practices into documents that are legible to an international standard.
A small locally managed camp may possess experienced mahouts and extensive forest access but lack:
- an English-speaking compliance officer;
- formally written policies;
- digitised medical and employment records;
- time for repeated reporting; and
- staff dedicated to international certification.
The difference between a certified and an uncertified camp therefore cannot automatically be treated as the difference between high and low welfare. It may also reflect differences in administrative resources, language capacity and international institutional access.
The welfare model offers a more nuanced method than prohibition alone. But nuance comes with high evidentiary and bureaucratic demands, while the prohibition model can be communicated through a single photograph or word.
Prohibition and certification should not be conflated: one substitutes an activity label for welfare assessment, while the other attempts a multidimensional evaluation. Yet both relocate ethical authority into systems of external legibility. In one, a visible activity determines whether a venue may be sold; in the other, practices must be translated into auditable documents and internationally recognised criteria. The question is therefore not only which standard protects elephants more effectively, but who possesses the authority to define valid care and which forms of knowledge survive the process of becoming legible. This is the point at which Lainé’s biocultural critique becomes essential.
10. Lainé’s biocultural critique: what was lost?
Nicolas Lainé is a social anthropologist whose ethnographic research examines human–elephant relations in Laos and neighbouring parts of South and Southeast Asia. His Lao fieldwork among Tai Lue elephant-keeping communities included interviews with thirty-six mahouts and elephant owners in northern Sayaboury Province, primarily in villages surrounding Hongsa, between June and August 2016.[36] This geographical overlap is central to the argument of this chapter. Elephant Adventures had organised its caravan within the same regional elephant-keeping landscape, bringing elephants, mahouts, villages, forests and paths into a tourist itinerary. Lainé’s ethnography is therefore not an external cultural example added to the institutional history. It provides a village-based account of the social world that Elephant Adventures partially mobilised and reformulated through tourism.
Situated within the broader multispecies turn in anthropology and the critical humanities, Lainé’s work questions the separation of nature from culture. An elephant, in this account, is neither an isolated biological unit nor a passive surface on which human culture is inscribed. Its habits, health, knowledge and capacity for action develop through historically specific relations with mahouts, households, plants, forests, spirits and other elephants. A biocultural approach does not simply add “local culture” to an otherwise biological account of the species. It asks how human and elephant worlds are produced together, whose knowledge becomes authoritative, and what happens when institutions reorganise those relations.[37]
Lainé’s ethnography gives this claim practical content. Mahouts and owners around Hongsa told him that elephants recognise and select forest plants when ill. Rather than claiming complete control over feeding and treatment, they described the forest as hank ka ya, a pharmacy in which elephants could seek restorative or medicinal plants. A mahout might leave an unwell elephant in the forest for several days and judge its recovery through renewed health and ease, or sabai. Lainé also recorded care distributed among owners, mahouts and ritual specialists, and a conception of the elephant as a member of the owner’s household whose health and conduct were implicated in relations among people, elephants, land and spirits.[36]
These accounts do not merely supply the “mahout voice” missing from an institutional history. They alter the meaning of expertise. Knowledge is not located entirely in the mahout and then applied to a passive animal. Mahouts learn by following elephants, observing seasonal diets, distinguishing ordinary foods from plants associated with particular symptoms, and interpreting the animal’s conduct in the forest. The elephant is a participant in the production of knowledge. Care is consequently neither full human control nor simple withdrawal: it is the organised possibility for an elephant to exercise capacities that mahouts have learned to recognise.
This relational account should not be romanticised. Household membership, work, restraint and ritual authority all involve asymmetries, and a historically established relation does not guarantee good welfare. Lainé’s contribution is not a presumption that local practice is always benign. It is a methodological demand that welfare and conservation begin with the particular relations through which an elephant has acquired habits, attachments and practical knowledge, rather than treating those relations as cultural residue surrounding a biologically self-contained animal.
In his 2018 article “Asian Elephant Conservation: Too Elephantocentric? Towards a Biocultural Approach of Conservation,” Lainé directed this perspective at contemporary conservation institutions in Laos, taking the Elephant Conservation Center as a prominent case. His criticism was not that the ECC lacked veterinary facilities or mahout employment, but that mainstream conservation isolated the elephant as the principal biological subject to be saved or rewilded. Mahouts, villages, forests and cosmological relations could then be retained as useful contextual variables without being recognised as constitutive parts of the life under conservation. Employing mahouts is not necessarily the same as recognising them as co-authors of conservation; documenting knowledge is not necessarily the same as preserving the relations through which that knowledge continues to be produced.[37]
The exchange that followed between Lainé and ECC founder Sébastien Duffillot clarified both the force and the limit of this criticism.[38] Duffillot emphasised that the ECC had acquired elephants from owners wishing to sell, maintained veterinary and breeding programmes, employed mahouts and depended upon their knowledge. These facts matter. They show that the ECC cannot accurately be described as simply excluding people. Lainé’s deeper question nevertheless remains: what future is that knowledge authorised to build? When mahout expertise is used to create elephant groups capable of living with reduced routine human intervention, it becomes indispensable to the operation while its continuation as a basis for shared life ceases to be the institutional objective.
Haraway’s concept of response-ability makes this distinction analytically sharper.[39] It does not provide a husbandry protocol or require the preservation of every inherited practice. It names the cultivated capacity to notice and answer to particular beings within relations that are already damaged, unequal and unfinished. To “stay with the trouble” is therefore neither to purify elephant life by removing humans nor to defend the past because it is traditional. Applied to the Lao case, it asks who remains able—and institutionally authorised—to respond to a particular elephant’s health, temperament, attachments and history after care has been reorganised. It also requires those relations to change when elephants’ behaviour and welfare demand it. The ethical alternative to separation is not immobility, but continuing, situated responsibility.
This helps distinguish Lainé’s contribution from the three conservation paths without turning him into a fourth institutional programme. Maurer demonstrates at the system level how elephants, people, forest access and economic change remain interdependent. Suter asks how continuing human–elephant relations can be made safer and more accountable through welfare science and audit. Lainé asks a prior political question: which beings and forms of knowledge are allowed to define the world that conservation is trying to sustain? His critique applies to rewilding and audit alike whenever mahout knowledge is recognised operationally but subordinated epistemically.[40]
What receded as the ECC institutionalised its reherding and rewilding programme was therefore not merely an elephant-riding product. It was the possibility of treating the continuing shared life of elephants and mahouts—their seasonal landscape use, intergenerational knowledge and daily mutual adaptation—as a conservation objective in its own right. Elephant Adventures should not be idealised: it staged regional practice for foreign tourists and depended upon external management. Yet, for a time, it tried to make that shared world economically reproducible. The movement from Elephant Adventures to the ECC marks a change not from relation to no relation, but from conserving a relation to using relation in the production of a different endpoint.
Conclusion: Two Diverging Histories of Animal Ethics
The trajectory from Elephant Adventures to the Elephant Conservation Center reveals a transformation in the moral and practical target of conservation in Laos. It was not a linear progression from exploitation to protection. A common institutional lineage generated competing visions of care: sustaining historically formed relations among elephants, mahouts and forest landscapes; reforming those relations through welfare science and standardised auditing; and employing intensive human care and mahout knowledge to produce more autonomous elephant social groups oriented towards rewilding. Elephant-centrism was made through this reorganisation of care, not simply through a growth of concern for elephants.
This transformation intersected with a striking divergence in the history of animal ethics. At the same time that multispecies scholarship was dismantling the nature–culture divide—emphasising mutual dependence, embodied communication and situated responsibility—influential welfare campaigns and travel platforms were converting ethics into a simplified and marketable product. Complex questions of diet, workload, exercise, restraint, attachment and individual history were condensed into activity-based prohibitions: riding or no riding, contact or no contact. The market could thereby claim to put elephants first while attending less closely to the life of any particular elephant and to the people and landscapes through which that life had been formed.
The argument is not that rewilding should be rejected. Rehabilitation and release can contribute to wild populations, and some elephants may gain meaningful forms of social and ecological autonomy. The 2024 IUCN/SSC guidelines nevertheless confirm that such projects remain long-term social and institutional undertakings involving mahouts, local communities, monitoring, security and negotiated responsibility. Reduced human contact is a possible technical objective within such a project; it is not, by itself, evidence of moral superiority.
Nor does challenging a separation-oriented ideal require romanticising the “way of the mahout.” Historically formed relations have contained discipline, coercion, inequality and danger, and they must be judged through the welfare of particular elephants as well as through their cultural depth. Haraway’s response-ability is useful precisely because it refuses both moral purification and nostalgia. It directs attention to the difficult work of remaining answerable within relations while changing the conditions that cause harm.
The purpose of this chapter has therefore been diagnostic rather than programmatic. It has shown how a global reputational market can erase complex interspecies histories and replace them with a saleable image of “pure nature,” and how institutional conservation can preserve mahout knowledge as an instrument while declining to preserve the shared life that produces it. Developing workable alternatives that combine elephant welfare, mahout authority, local livelihoods and forest access requires a separate analysis of governance and political economy. The present chapter identifies the conditions that such an analysis must not ignore.
The movement from historically formed human–elephant relations towards rewilding should remain an open question rather than a completed moral progression. What is gained when elephants recover more autonomous social lives? What knowledge, attachment and daily responsibility recede when sustained relations with humans are deliberately reduced? Universal lists of permitted and prohibited tourist activities cannot answer these questions. They require attention to particular elephants, particular mahouts and the lived landscapes through which—however imperfectly—they have learned to respond to one another.
Notes
[1] Green Discovery Laos, “Way of the Mahout: Elephant Caravans in Northern Laos,” archived May 27, 2008. The itinerary describes travel from Tha Souang to Hongsa, the departure from Sibounheuang, passage through Ban Then and Ban Nam Tap, retrieval of elephants from the forest, the logging demonstration, the Nam En route and the final stay on the Mekong.
https://web.archive.org/web/20080527152009/http%3A//www.greendiscoverylaos.com/elephant/ele-01.html
[2] Green Discovery Laos, “Way of the Mahout—Maps,” archived July 5, 2008. The map page remained represented in the Wayback Machine through February 2014. Copies of the maps were also supplied by the author. Publication or reproduction of the images may require a separate rights review.
https://web.archive.org/web/20080527152009/http%3A/www.greendiscoverylaos.com/elephant/ele-05.html
[3] Sureeratna Lakanavichian, “Impacts and Effectiveness of Logging Bans in Natural Forests: Thailand,” in Forestry Policies and Institutions Working Paper: Impacts and Effectiveness of Logging Bans in Natural Forests in Asia-Pacific (FAO, 2001); Pakkanut Bansiddhi, Janine L. Brown and Chatchote Thitaram, “Welfare Assessment and Activities of Captive Elephants in Thailand,” Animals 10, no. 6 (2020): 919, DOI 10.3390/ani10060919.
https://www.fao.org/4/x6967e/x6967e09.htm
[4] Tiger Trail’s archived 2006 website described the area around its Elephant & Adventure Camp at Ban Xieng Lom by stating, “Until 1990, tigers and wild elephants lived in this area.” This was promotional language rather than an independently verified ecological history, but it shows how the early camp represented itself as returning elephants to a recently elephant-inhabited landscape. The account of the Manifa site is based on information given to the author by its owner: during the royal period, the area was remembered as land on which state-owned elephants had been kept, with forest and water suitable for elephant care. This recollection requires corroboration through interviews and archival research.
https://web.archive.org/web/20060614173330/https://laos-adventures.com/
[5] Elephant Adventures, “Who We Are,” archived June 25, 2011. This is the organisation’s retrospective account rather than an independent institutional history. It states that Gilles Maurer and Sébastien Duffillot founded ElefantAsia, developed the tourism itinerary in 2007 and proposed it to Green Discovery.
[6] Hongsa Power Company Limited, “Overview.” The company states that it was formed in 2009 to develop and operate the 1,878-megawatt Hongsa lignite mine-mouth power plant. Its project descriptions identify the mine, associated roads and resettlement infrastructure.
https://hongsapower.com/index.php?id=1&layout=page&model=cms&view=item
[7] The movement of Hongsa elephants into Lao tourism facilities and foreign destinations is based partly on the author’s regional knowledge and testimony from local elephant-sector participants. Publicly available records do not yet provide a complete list of individual elephants, dates and destinations. This point should eventually be supported by interviews, registration records and export documentation.
[8] Gilles Maurer, Olivier Gimenez, Baptiste Mulot and Nicolas Lescureux, “Under Pressure: How the Human–Wild–Captive Elephant Social-Ecological System in Laos Is Teetering Due to Global Forces and Sociocultural Changes,” People and Nature 3, no. 5 (2021): 1047–1063, DOI 10.1002/pan3.10247. The paper discusses communal forest access, seasonal freedom, land privatisation, agricultural intensification and increasingly divided access to resources.
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pan3.10247
[9] Gilles Maurer et al., “Wild–Captive Interactions and Economics Drive Dynamics of Asian Elephants in Laos,” Scientific Reports 7 (2017): 14800, DOI 10.1038/s41598-017-13907-x. The paper connects the demographic future of domesticated elephants to interactions with wild bulls and to owners’ economic decisions. Some numerical estimates concerning wild paternity were based on information supplied to the researchers and should therefore be treated as reported estimates rather than a comprehensive genetic census.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5665948
[10] Elephant Adventures, French-language homepage and “Protection des éléphants,” archived December 2007. The latter states that five per cent of turnover supported the Sayaboury Mobile Elephant Clinic and describes veterinary training and the production of a mahout manual.
https://web.archive.org/web/20071207132223/http%3A//www.elephantadventures.com/index-10.html
[11] Florence Labatut and Ingrid Suter, “The Veterinary Care of Domesticated Elephants in Laos by a Mobile Veterinary Unit,” Gajah 32 (2010): 21–26. The authors report treatment of 347 elephants between December 2007 and July 2009: 78 per cent working in logging, 10 per cent in tourism and 12 per cent in village work or unemployed.
https://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/32-21-Labatut.pdf
[12] Nicolas Lainé, “Asian Elephant Conservation: Too Elephantocentric? Towards a Biocultural Approach of Conservation,” Asian Bioethics Review 10, no. 4 (2018): 279–293, DOI 10.1007/s41649-018-0070-z. Lainé contrasts the more frequent use of allopathic veterinary medicine in tourism camps with the reluctance of some village mahouts to seek veterinary treatment despite ElefantAsia’s free service.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7747420
[13] Labatut and Suter, “Veterinary Care,” especially the description of the Mobile Veterinary Unit’s training, translated materials, preventive-medicine education and interpretation of mahout distrust. The report also notes that some injected medication produced abscesses, which could itself cause distrust of modern treatment.
https://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/32-21-Labatut.pdf
[14] Green Discovery Laos, “Logistics/Conditions,” archived July 5, 2008. The staffing model included one elephant and mahout per guest, a chief mahout, guides, cooks and, for very small groups, an additional transport elephant.
https://web.archive.org/web/20080527152009/http%3A/www.greendiscoverylaos.com/elephant/ele-03.html
[15] Green Discovery Laos, “Advantages,” archived July 24, 2008. The page describes maximum group size, forest knowledge, mahout selection, village payments, veterinary contributions and the proposed conversion from logging into “quality and humane ecotourism activities.”
https://web.archive.org/web/20080527152009/http%3A/www.greendiscoverylaos.com/elephant/ele-02.html
[16] Green Discovery Laos listed prices of US$950, US$700 and US$600 for groups of two, three to four and five to six respectively in 2008. The Elephant Adventures website listed a similar five-day programme in December 2007 at US$990, US$700 and US$600.
https://web.archive.org/web/20080527152009/http%3A//www.greendiscoverylaos.com/elephant/ele-01.html
[17] Elephant Adventures, “Where Does Your Money Go?,” archived June 2011. The page states that mahouts were paid more than in logging, received payment for the return journey without guests, and that village funds and the Mobile Elephant Clinic received contributions.
[18] Labatut and Suter, “Veterinary Care,” 21. The paper states that elephant trekking was still in its infancy in Laos and that an ElefantAsia-sponsored sanctuary was “about to see the light.” This supports concurrent planning of Elephant Adventures and a fixed facility but does not demonstrate that the tourism project was intended to be temporary.
https://www.asesg.org/PDFfiles/Gajah/32-21-Labatut.pdf
[19] Elephant Adventures was advertising caravan dates for December 2011 and January 2012 on its archived site. Green Discovery’s itinerary, logistics, traveller-information and map pages show Wayback capture ranges extending to February 13, 2014. Archived availability is not evidence of actual tour operation.
[20] Elephant Conservation Center, “History.” The ECC’s current official account says that it was created and registered in 2010 and links its establishment to declining logging work and the professional conversion of mahouts towards ecotourism. It also states that the centre began purchasing elephants from owners wishing to sell. The page represents ECC’s institutional narrative and should ultimately be compared with contemporaneous incorporation records and ElefantAsia reports.
[21] Elephant Conservation Center, “Herding & Rewilding.” The ECC identifies release into Nam Pouy as its ultimate objective and describes behavioural research, social-group formation and mahout participation in the process.
[22] Elephant Conservation Center, “Rewilding.” The organisation states that elephants released in 2019 were microchipped and followed through direct observation and GPS by former mahouts and patrol teams. It also describes mahout knowledge as essential to the release process.
[23] IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group, Guidelines for the Rehabilitation of Captive Elephants as a Possible Restocking Option for Wild Populations (2024). The guidelines describe rehabilitation and release as long-term, resource-intensive processes requiring multidisciplinary teams, mahouts and local communities. They specifically call for assessment of the effects of moving elephants from owners and mahouts with whom they may have strong bonds, and recommend considering the purposes and consequences of release from the perspectives of elephants, people and landscapes. They also distinguish rehabilitation of displaced wild calves from projects involving other captive elephants, whose histories and suitability require individual assessment.
https://www.asesg.org/images/WG%20report-%20Rehabilitation%20of%20elephants.pdf
[24] Rosaleen Duffy and Lorraine Moore, “Global Regulations and Local Practices: The Politics and Governance of Animal Welfare in Elephant Tourism,” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 19, nos. 4–5 (2011): 589–604, DOI 10.1080/09669582.2011.566927.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669582.2011.566927
[25] Jan Schmidt-Burbach, Taken for a Ride: The Conditions for Elephants Used in Tourism in Asia (London: World Animal Protection, 2017). The study surveyed 2,923 elephants at 220 venues in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Nepal, Sri Lanka and India. Its methodology section describes the instrument as a rapid welfare-conditions assessment and explicitly states that it did not directly measure the welfare of individual elephants. WAP’s current elephant-research page provides its summary and report archive.
https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/animals/elephants
[26] Pakkanut Bansiddhi, Janine L. Brown and Chatchote Thitaram, “Welfare Assessment and Activities of Captive Elephants in Thailand,” Animals 10, no. 6 (2020): 919, DOI 10.3390/ani10060919. The review distinguishes evidence-based welfare assessment from claims of universal brutality and concludes that tourist activities cannot be judged independently of the elephants’ total management.
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/6/919
[27] Treepradab Norkaew et al., “Associations among Tourist Camp Management, High and Low Tourist Seasons, and Welfare Factors in Female Asian Elephants in Thailand,” PLOS ONE 14, no. 6 (2019): e0218579, DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0218579. The study relates exercise, work time, walking distance, tourist feeding, body condition, metabolic indicators and faecal glucocorticoid metabolites across five camps.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6576785
[28] Pakkanut Bansiddhi et al., “Management Factors Affecting Physical Health and Welfare of Tourist Camp Elephants in Thailand,” PeerJ 7 (2019): e6756, DOI 10.7717/peerj.6756. Among 122 elephants at fifteen camps, the study found saddle-related wounds to be rare, while identifying excessive body condition, hard substrates and wounds associated with improper equipment use as management concerns.
https://peerj.com/articles/6756
[29] Worapong Kosaruk et al., “Effect of Tourist Activities on Fecal and Salivary Glucocorticoids and Immunoglobulin A in Female Captive Asian Elephants in Thailand,” Animals 10, no. 10 (2020): 1928, DOI 10.3390/ani10101928. The year-long comparison of saddle-riding, bareback-riding and no-riding programmes found no clear indication that riding per se negatively affected the two physiological biomarkers examined.
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/10/1928
[30] Raman Ghimire, Janine L. Brown, Chatchote Thitaram and Pakkanut Bansiddhi, “Comparison of Animal Welfare Assessment Tools and Methodologies: Need for an Effective Approach for Captive Elephants in Asia,” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 11 (2024): 1370909, DOI 10.3389/fvets.2024.1370909. The review identifies institutional-level focus, possible subjective assumptions and limited validation among the constraints of WAP’s assessment method, and recommends integrating animal- and resource-based indicators.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1370909/full
[31] World Animal Protection, “TripAdvisor Ends Sale of Cruel Wildlife Tourist Attractions Following World Animal Protection Campaign,” October 12, 2016. WAP reported that more than 558,000 supporters had called on TripAdvisor to stop selling tickets to specified wildlife attractions. Taken for a Ride subsequently stated that more than 160 travel companies had committed to ending sales and promotion of elephant rides and shows by early 2017.
[32] Visitor reviews of the Elephant Conservation Center on Google Maps and TripAdvisor, accessed July 25, 2026. These review pages are cited as a body of visitor discourse rather than as a systematic or statistically representative sample. Although the wording varies, narratives of rescue, rehabilitation, socialisation and recovery of an authentic elephant life recur across the reviews.
https://maps.app.goo.gl/hycjdwFGFSH3cLKZ6
[33] Ingrid Suter, “Rewilding or Reviewing: Conservation and the Elephant-Based Tourism Industry,” Animal Sentience 5, no. 28 (2020), DOI 10.51291/2377-7478.1556.
https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/animsent/vol5/iss28/3
[34] Asian Captive Elephant Standards, “What Is an Elephant Camp Audit?” ACES describes more than 190 criteria covering elephant care, working conditions, veterinary records, human resources and institutional documentation, followed by corrective action and annual reassessment. These are ACES’s own descriptions of its system, not an independent validation of audit outcomes.
https://www.elephantstandards.com/post/what-is-an-elephant-camp-audit
[35] Manifa Elephant Camp management records and internal correspondence concerning the ACES/PATA-supported assessment opportunity, 2022–2023; author’s direct account. The records are not currently public.
[36] Nicolas Lainé, “Laotian Mahouts and Elephants: Glimpses into a Multispecies System of Medicine and Care,” in Composing Worlds with Elephants: Interdisciplinary Dialogues, ed. Nicolas Lainé, Paul G. Keil and Khatijah Rahmat (Marseille: IRD Éditions, 2023), 183–195, DOI 10.4000/books.irdeditions.47346. Lainé reports interviews with thirty-six mahouts and elephant owners in northern Sayaboury Province, primarily in villages surrounding Hongsa, between June and August 2016. He describes the forest as hank ka ya, a pharmacy in which elephants select plants, and analyses medicine and care as knowledge co-produced among elephants, mahouts, owners, specialists and forest environments. The geographical correspondence claimed in this chapter is regional: the evidence does not establish that every fieldwork village lay directly on the archived Elephant Adventures itinerary.
https://books.openedition.org/irdeditions/47346?lang=en
[37] Nicolas Lainé, “Asian Elephant Conservation: Too Elephantocentric? Towards a Biocultural Approach of Conservation,” Asian Bioethics Review 10, no. 4 (2018): 279–293, DOI 10.1007/s41649-018-0070-z. Drawing on ethnographic research among Tai Lue elephant-keeping communities in Laos and on an ethno-ethological approach to human–animal relations, Lainé challenges the separation of elephants from the human, ecological and cosmological relations through which their lives have historically been constituted. The article discusses the ECC as a prominent example of the institutional tendency under criticism. For Lainé’s broader research profile, see PALOC, “Nicolas Lainé.”
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7747420
https://www.paloc.fr/fr/annuaire/nicolas-laine-6810
[38] Sébastien Duffillot, “Re: Asian Elephant Conservation—Too Elephantocentric? Towards a Biocultural Approach of Conservation,” Asian Bioethics Review 11 (2019); Nicolas Lainé and Serge Morand, “Response to Duffillot: A Long Road Ahead,” Asian Bioethics Review 11, no. 2 (2019): 141–145.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7747251
[39] Donna J. Haraway, The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness (Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2003); Donna J. Haraway, When Species Meet (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008); Donna J. Haraway, Staying with the Trouble: Making Kin in the Chthulucene (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016). Haraway’s concepts are used here as analytical tools rather than as a ready-made policy programme. Response-ability directs attention to the cultivated capacity to perceive and answer within particular interspecies relations; “staying with the trouble” resists both fantasies of purification and uncritical preservation of inherited arrangements.
https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822373780
[40] The three-part formulation is an analytical interpretation rather than a claim that Maurer, Suter and Duffillot understand themselves as members of opposing schools. It is based respectively on Maurer et al.’s social-ecological research, Suter’s welfare-centred defence of reforming elephant tourism and the ECC’s stated reherding and rewilding objectives. It also does not imply that Lainé conducted a direct published debate with Maurer or Suter, or that he explicitly assessed their later positions in the terms used here.
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pan3.10247
